CLOSTRIDIOSIS

Clostridiosis or clostridial infections are a group of diseases caused by Clostridium bacteria. These diseases are associated with animals in stressful situations and with deficient nutrition. It spreads quickly, which can lead to high mortality rates, with many cases becoming fatal in just 1–2 days.

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Affected species

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Swine

Horses

Risk factors

Bacteria from the Clostridium genus, which cause clostridial infections, produce extremely resistant spores that can survive in the environment for long periods of time. These bacteria are often found in soil and feces, as well as animals’ digestive tracts and, as spores, in the tissue of healthy animals.

There are various factors that can increase the risk of spreading clostridiosis among animals:

Not consuming enough colostrum

This can lead to insufficient transfer of immunity from mother to offspring, making young animals more susceptible to infections.

Changes in diet and stress

Abrupt changes in feed or stressful conditions can weaken the immune system.

Wounds

The bacteria or spores can get into the animal’s body through open wounds.

Deficient hygiene and crowding

A dirty or crowded environment can increase the bacterial load. Animals can ingest these bacteria from contaminated soil, water or feed.

Incorrect cadaver disposal

Animals with lethal cases of clostridiosis can be an important source of infection if not eliminated quickly and properly.

Spread of clostridial infections

Clostridial infections are caused by bacteria in the Clostridium genus, which are part of the normal intestinal microbiota in many animals, coexisting in harmony with other microorganisms. However, when these bacteria are shed in feces, they become ubiquitous in the soil and manure at all farms.

Although not all species cause diseases, those that are pathogenic are normally mortal. These include C. septicum, C. chauvoei, C. sordellii, C. haemolyticum, C. novyi, C. perfringens, C. tetani, C. botulinum and C. difficile. These bacteria are obligate anaerobes, which means they only multiply in environments without oxygen. In normal conditions, they survive in the environment by forming spores that allow them to live much longer in a vegetative state.

Clostridial infections are triggered when these bacteria or their spores enter an animal’s body and find the right conditions to multiply. Once inside a host organism, the bacteria start to reproduce and release very powerful toxins that cause various symptoms and damage associated with clostridiosis.

When these bacteria penetrate the animal’s body and the conditions are favorable, they multiply and release very powerful toxins that cause the various clostridial infections.

The toxins released by clostridial bacteria are classified in three main groups, by their effects on the body:

Histotoxins

These cause extensive damage to various organs and tissues, leading quickly to degeneration and necrosis.

Enterotoxin

These mainly affect the digestive system, causing symptoms like diarrhea, enteritis and other gastrointestinal disorders.

Neurotoxins

These attack the nervous system, causing paralysis and other neurological symptoms.

Signs and symptoms of clostridial infection in ruminants

Clostridial infections tend to progress quickly and, in many cases, the clinical signs can only be detected once the disease is too far advanced. However, there is a wide range of symptoms of the various clostridial infections. These clinical signs vary depending on the bacteria involved and type of toxins released:

Fever

Abnormal behavior

Loss of appetite and resulting weight loss

Muscle stiffness

Lethargy or depression

Swollen leg or shoulder

Acute limping

Localized stiffness

Muscle spasms

Dark red urine

Sudden death

Types of clostridial infections in ruminants

Disease

Causative bacteria

TOXIN

Species affected

Enterotoxemies

C. chauvoei, C. novyi types B and C. septicum, C. sordellii, C. perfringens types A, C and D

Enterotoxin

Sheep

Group of clostridial infections that includes pulpy kidney disease, lamb dysentery, hemorrhagic enteritis and yellow lamb disease. They are caused by various Clostridium species and mainly affect sheep, especially young lambs. Although outbreaks of enterotoxemia don’t normally affect many animals, the mortality rate is nearly 100%, so they can have devastating effects. Classic enterotoxemia (caused by C. perfringens type D) is the most common and can cause significant financial losses. This disease tends to occur after abrupt feeding changes, especially with carbohydrate-rich foods that alter the ruminal mucosa and intestinal microbiota, causing serious diarrhea and high mortality rates.

Malignant edema (gas gangrene)

C. septicum, C. chauvoei, C. perfringens, C. sordellii and C. novyi

Histotoxin

Cattle, sheep and goats

Also known as gas gangrene, it affects ruminants of all species and ages. It is transmitted mainly through injections with contaminated material, complicated calving or open sores, like those from castration. The symptoms include high fever, loss of appetite, depression, inflammation of the affected area and edemas. In more serious cases, the disease can lead to death in just 1 or 2 days, sometimes without any visible signs beforehand.

Blackleg

Clostridium chauvoei

Histotoxin

Cattle

It gets its name from the darker shade of the skin due to infection. It is developed when Clostridium chauvoei spores are ingested and remain latent in the intestine until an intense muscle exertion creates the right anaerobic atmosphere for the bacteria to activate and replicate. It often appears after physical stress, like stampedes, mounting behavior, long-distance or road transport. Symptoms include fever, inflammation, loss of appetite and muscle necrosis, including the cardiac muscle, which can lead to sudden death.

Infectious necrotic hepatitis

(black disease)

Clostridium novyi type B

Histotoxin

Sheep

Clostridium novyi spores are ingested and taken to the liver by the immune system, where they lay dormant until the right conditions arise for them to multiply. This disease causes damage to liver tissue, often accompanied by sudden bloating and hemorrhagic fluid released from the nose. The result is sudden death.

Bacillary hemoglobinuria

Clostridium haemolyticum

Histotoxin

Bovino y ovino

Similar to Infectious necrotic hepatitis, hemoglobinuria is caused by Clostridium spores escaping the intestines and moving into the liver, causing hepatic necrosis. Plus, toxins are released into the blood stream and destroy red blood cells, causing excess hemoglobin to be excreted in the urine, giving it a characteristic red color. Symptoms can last 1 to 4 days before the death of the animal.

Tetanus

Clostridium tetani

Neurotoxin

Cattle, sheep and goats

Caused by neurotoxins that affect the nervous system, causing paralysis due to stiffness and progressive muscle spasms. It starts in the extremities, tongue and facial muscles, and can end up paralyzing the respiratory muscles, leading to death by asphyxia.

Botulism

Clostridium botulinum

Neurotoxin

Cattle, sheep and goats

Like tetanus, it is caused by neurotoxins that affect the muscles and can lead to respiratory paralysis. The pathogen causing it breeds mainly in decomposing organic material, and livestock feed that comes in contact with contaminated cadavers can cause a botulism outbreak. The progressive paralysis it causes can be fatal if not treated in time.

DISEASE

Enterotoxemies

Group of clostridial infections that includes pulpy kidney disease, lamb dysentery, hemorrhagic enteritis and yellow lamb disease. They are caused by various Clostridium species and mainly affect sheep, especially young lambs. Although outbreaks of enterotoxemia don’t normally affect many animals, the mortality rate is nearly 100%, so they can have devastating effects.

Classic enterotoxemia (caused by C. perfringens type D) is the most common and can cause significant financial losses. This disease tends to occur after abrupt feeding changes, especially with carbohydrate-rich foods that alter the ruminal mucosa and intestinal microbiota, causing serious diarrhea and high mortality rates.

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

C. chauvoei, C. novyi types B and C. septicum, C. sordellii, C. perfringens typess A, C and D

TOXINE

Enterotoxin

SPECIES AFFECTED

Sheep

DISEASE

Malignant edema (gas gangrene)

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

C. septicum, C. chauvoei, C. perfringens, C. sordellii and C. novyi

TOXIN

Histotoxin

SPECIES AFFECTED

Cattle, sheep and goats

DISEASE

Blackleg

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

Clostridium chauvoei

TOXIN

Histotoxin

SPECIES AFFECTED

Cattle

DISEASE

Infectious necrotic hepatitis

(black disease)

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

Clostridium novyi type B

TOXIN

Histotoxin

SPECIES AFFECTED

Sheep

DISEASE

Bacillary hemoglobinuria

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

Clostridium haemolyticum

TOXIN

Histotoxin

SPECIES AFFECTED

Cattle and sheep

DISEASE

Tetanus

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

Clostridium tetani

TOXIN

Neurotoxin

SPECIES AFFECTED

Cattle, sheep and goats

DISEASE

Botulism

CAUSATIVE BACTERIA

Clostridium botulinum

TOXIN

Neurotoxin

Species affected

Cattle, sheep and goats

Financial losses from clostridial infections

It is difficult to quantify the financial losses caused by clostridial infections, as this term encompasses a large group of diseases with different characteristics. However, it is undeniable that the financial impact is considerable. Malignant edema, for example, is one of the clostridial infections that causes the greatest losses, due to both its high mortality rate and the cost of treatment and control.

High mortality

Most clostridial infections have a very fast course and often result in death within just days. This can significantly reduce a farm’s head of livestock.

Decreased yield

Sick animals tend to lose weight, have less appetite and produce less milk or wool, directly affecting the farm’s profitability.

Treatment costs

Although there are some treatments available for certain clostridial infections, veterinary care and medications can be expensive, especially in emergencies.

Losses from culling

Sometimes infected animals must be culled to prevent the disease from spreading, which can be financially devastating.

Impact on farm management

Disinfection, quarantining and other sanitary measures can be costly and take additional time, affecting operational efficiency.

Get a clostridiosis diagnosis for your animals

Our automatic clostridiosis diagnostic tool helps identify a possible diagnosis and the specific type of Clostridium involved.

How to control and prevent clostridial infections?

Prevention: the best solution

Clostridial infections, although common on farms, can be devastating due to their quick progression and high mortality rates. So, prevention is the best strategy for facing these diseases.

As Clostridia inhabit the soil and farm environment, it is nearly impossible to get rid of them completely. Diseases caused by these bacteria progress so quickly that treatment with anti-toxin, antibiotic and anti-inflammatory drugs can be costly and, often, ineffective.

Control the spread of the disease

Control measures can be broken into two groups: nutrition and hygiene.

Proper nutrition: Avoid abrupt feeding changes and pay special attention to feed high in carbohydrates or fiber. Contaminated feed can be a risk, so keeping feeding areas clean and disinfecting automatic milk feeders is essential to preventing infection, especially in young animals.

Hygiene and sanitary management: Ensuring good handling and hygiene practices is key. This includes regularly disinfecting the facilities and equipment, as well as preventing sores so pathogens can’t get into the animals’ bodies. Proper disposal of cadavers is also essential, as animals that have died of clostridiosis are a huge focus of infection.

Tests and diagnostics

Given that clostridial infections tend to come on suddenly and in many cases don’t show clinical signs until the advanced stages, in vivo diagnosis can be complicated. The most commonly used tests to identify these diseases are:

Necropsy

Post-mortem examination can provide valuable information about the lesions to diagnose the type of clostridiosis affecting the livestock and apply preventive measures in other animals. It is essential for the necropsy be conducted soon after death because the bacteria break down quickly.

PCR

This very sensitive technique detects and quantifies certain species of Clostridium in real time. However, it can be difficult to know when to do this test, as clostridiosis can develop asymptomatically.

Microbiological culture

This process isolates and characterizes the clostridial bacteria to identify the type of disease and guide prevention measures.

ELISA tests

This test helps associate lesions or clinical signs with the presence of toxins, although it can be complicated as clostridial toxins break down quickly.

Vaccination

Vaccination is the most effective tool for preventing clostridiosis, given its high prevalence in cattle and sheep. Toxoid vaccines are commonly used, which are made from toxins secreted by the bacteria that no longer pose any risk of toxicity, in order to stimulate the immune system and prepare it to fight off any real bacteria that may enter the organism.

Clostridiosis vaccination protocols are an essential part of farm health management, proven effective in preventing the morbidity and, above all, mortality associated with these diseases. A solid vaccination strategy may be the only truly affordable and effective way to control clostridiosis and limit its effect on livestock yield.

Bibliography

Otter, A., & Uzal, F. A. (2020). Clostridial diseases in farm animals: 1. Enterotoxaemias and other alimentary tract infections. In Practice, 42, 219-232. DOI: 10.1136/inp.m1462
Otter, A., & Uzal, F. A. (2020). Clostridial diseases in farm animals: 2. Histotoxic and neurotoxic diseases. In Practice, 42, 279-288.
Popoff, M.R. & Bouvet, P. (2009) Clostridial toxins. Future Microbiology, 4(8); 1021-1064. DOI: 10.2217/fmb.09.72. PMID: 19824793.
Robson, S. (2007) Clostridial diseases in cattle. Primefact 440 First Edition – NSW Department of Primary Industries, Australia. Recuperado de https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111163/clostridial-diseases-in-cattle.pdf
Uzal, F.A. & Songer, J.G. (2008) Diagnosis of Clostridium perfringens intestinal infections in sheep and goats. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation; 20(3): 253-65. doi: 10.1177/104063870802000301.

JAVIER MARCOS SAINERO

Director of the technical service at Vetia Animal Health

B.S.in Veterinary Medicine from the Complutense University of Madrid and Director of the Technical Service at Vetia Animal Health, a company of Zendal Biotech group that markets vaccines and pharmacological products for animal health.

CUBOLAC

Polyvalent clostridial vaccine to prevent and control clostridial infections in cattle, sheep and goats.

CLOSTRIDIOSIS

JAVIER MARCOS SAINERO

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